How did people keep food fresh before refrigerators?

Before refrigerators, people kept food fresh by slowing the growth of bacteria or making food hard for bacteria to live in. They used ice, cool cellars, salt, smoke, sugar, vinegar, drying, and sealed jars, choosing the method that fit the food and the season.

The most satisfying detail is how much planning sat behind an ordinary meal. Winter ice could cool milk months later, apples might wait in a cellar, and summer berries could become jam for cold weather. A pantry was partly kitchen, partly calendar.